Non-scientists gather! The most challenging science in the most effortless ten minutes of your time. Also, awaiting your suggestions for topics. Show off your scientific knowledge to your friends and at gatherings! Let’s learn together!
New topics twice every month and will come out along with the release of the fortnightly newsletter. Subscribe to the newsletter for regular updates. You will need to spare only ten minutes twice a month to learn something new. Also, learn on the go! Each article will be released as a podcast episode as well.
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What is the internet?
We use it every day. You are using it now to read this. But what exactly is it? Is it a box? Does it have storage? How are we able to store things on the internet and never run out of space? Will we ever run out of space to store things? And where are the “clouds” where things get stored? You will know everything there is to know about all these. The Internet is basically just a network of the billions of computers and electronic devices in the world. Websites are just as they sound – Sites where information is stored and can be accessed by visiting those “sites”. So, the World Wide Web is just a collection of different websites, and it is essentially physical storage. These websites are saved on servers and when you want to visit a website, the information is sent via physical cables to your computer, and you view the information using an application called a web browser (Chrome, Firefox, Edge, etc.). Yes, even wireless connections like WiFi rely on cables at some stages on their path. And each of these websites has a unique “link”, which is its address on the server. Hence, there are many ways you can bring your computer to join the world wide web (WiFi, broadband, cable, DSL, 4G or 5G, etc.).
Now that we know what the internet means, we can understand what the cloud means. Just like your computer or other devices have physical storage on them like hard drives, the servers we talked about earlier also have storage. Along with storing websites, you can use them to store your data as well, but more securely. This is called cloud storage, which is essentially what YouTube and others are. The question now arises – With more than two million terabytes of data being added each day on the internet, will the servers ever run out of space? As we know, the internet itself is just a network of all computers, so the connection or accessibility will never run out. However, the servers holding all that information may run out of space. But with servers being added every day with newer technologies of memory storage, it is unlikely for space to run out so easily. The real problem is not whether we will find space to store our data, but whether we will find our data. As the volume of data increases, retrieval could become a bigger problem than storage itself.
More information: Click here for a longer, but easy tutorial on the internet.
The Standard Model
(How the universe works)
The resultant of over 400 years of physics research is the Standard Model, which provides the explanation about the working of the universe. Of course it is a developing theory and over 95% of the physics is still left to be fitted into it. But we have a good start. I realize that when scientists talk about such fundamental things, it becomes difficult for a common man to follow it, and as a result, people in general fail to understand its significance. But after this, I promise you will be able to grasp what scientists are talking about.
In general, we know that everything is made up of particles of some kind. While there are many types of particles, they are of two major types – particles that make up matter, and particles that make up the forces acting on matter. Matter particles (Fermions) are the electrons, up quarks, down quarks, neutrinos, plus 8 more complex variations of these. Matter is made using atoms (electrons + up quarks + down quarks), while neutrinos are extremely light, non-interacting particles constantly flowing through you, me, and everything without interacting with anything.
Acting on these matter particles are four types of force particles (Bosons). Without forces, these particles would be wandering lost around the universe without doing anything. The first type of force, the electromagnetic force, acts on matter having some positive or negative charge on it (Photons). The second type of force, the strong force, keeps the matter particles (quarks) together (Gluon). The third type of force, the weak force is responsible for decaying of particles to simpler forms, which is the method used by the Sun to give us energy, resulting in two types of force particles (W and Z bosons).
After the basic picture, now comes the final force particle that ties all of this together (Higgs boson). The Higgs Boson is a very complex field, but in simple words, when the Higgs field acts on matter particles, it gives it the thing we know as mass. Not everything is known about this though, but since this field is responsible for giving matter particles their mass, it is unofficially known as the God particle. However, all this leads us to three open questions that still need answers – 1) How can we fit in gravity, which is a major force in the universe, into this standard model?, 2) Are these forces different or are they manifestations of a single force (A Grand Unified Theory)?, and 3) While all this is impressive, it still accounts for only 5% of the energy of the universe. What about the remaining 95% that we are calling dark matter and dark energy?
We can only paint a full picture of the universe when we have answers to these questions. But who knows whether we will run into more questions once we have solved the problems at hand.
For a beautiful explanation, look at the following video by David Tong, theoretical physicist at the University of Cambridge:
Interested in reading more about the unified forces of nature? Read my article on unifying the forces of nature for a detailed perspective.
String Theory: Are we all manifested by strings?
We have heard a lot about String Theory. However, not all of us have really understood what it means to study “strings”. If you would go back to the previous topic of The Standard Model, we reached the conclusion that everything is made up of particles (electrons, quarks, gluons, etc.). But we got stuck at the point of combining all this with gravity. This is where String Theory comes into the picture and essentially says that even these particles are made up of one-dimensional strings. Each of these strings is identical but the reason different particle types exist is that they vibrate at different frequencies. It means that if a set of strings vibrate at a certain frequency, they are creating quarks. If they vibrate at a different frequency, they create electrons, and so on. As the research on string theory progressed, we saw that only having strings is not the complete picture. So, scientists use something called “branes” for understanding to which these strings are connected. Branes are like sheets and can be of any dimension. For example, a brane having a front and back would be two dimensional, a brane having front, back, up and down would be three dimensional, and so on. We live in a three-dimensional world, but scientists believe that there are even higher dimensions than these where the strings vibrate, which we are not able to access because they are way too nanoscopic to perceive or measure. Another important aspect of string theory is that for every matter particle, there will be a force particle present somewhere (read the previous topic on The Standard Model). If we are able to solve string theory, we might be able to relate gravity to the other fundamental forces, and maybe also uncover other exciting physics in our universe.
At this stage, there is no experimental evidence for string theory, but it gives hope for unifying the physics of the universe because the biggest to smallest matter and forces can be tracked down to identical strings. That is the beauty of this idea. If String Theory is proven to be correct, then everyone and everything is identical at its core, and the differences created are only superficial. Does this ring a bell? (Can we reach the unifying force of nature?)
Gravitational Waves
(Universal waves of spacetime)
After understanding how the universe works (The Standard Model) and what makes up those components of our universe (String Theory), it is time to understand the web that controls these components – Gravitational Waves. It is not difficult to understand, but the only reason it becomes difficult to understand is that the visualization of dimensions is difficult. It is easy to understand two-dimensional and three-dimensional spaces. A sheet of paper, for example, can be imagined as two-dimensional compared to the real world. But when we already have length, breadth, and height, it is difficult to imagine where you can add the next dimension. I can give you a flavor. You can do this small experiment at home with a small ball or a piece of aluminum foil, a flashlight (you can use your phone), and a flat surface (floor, wall, etc.). Here is a snip from my article. You can read the whole article here.
Do you notice the shadow becoming bigger and smaller as you move the ball front and back? Simple right? This circle on the wall has a length and breadth, but no height. We are not changing the actual size of the ball, but changing its position in one dimension is changing its shadow in the two other dimensions. This means by analogy that you move the ball in the third dimension, which is bringing about a change in the first two dimensions. If a creature did not know how to see the third dimension, it will be magic to them. Similarly, if a creature can perceive the fourth dimension and makes changes to it, we will see changes in three dimensions. In that case, we will see it as magic, but it’s just physical reality.
Now that we get an understanding of how the fourth or higher dimensions can affect our existing three dimensions, we can try to understand gravitational waves. The first successful theory of gravity was given by Sir Isaac Newton, which was well-received. He said that gravity is a force of attraction between two bodies and depends on their masses and the distance between them in space. This is not wrong, but it is not the bigger picture. Then came Albert Einstein with his General Theory of Relativity, where he stumped everyone by proposing a new and complex picture; but it made sense. He said that instead of just space, we should consider something called spacetime. Just like we don’t see light itself, but light helps us see things, in the same way, we feel the effects of spacetime. Let’s say you are holding a piece of string and a bird comes and sits on it. If you suddenly tug at the string, the bird will feel the effects of it because it was sitting on it. Similarly, if you are sitting on a hammock (hanging bed made of cloth suspended between two trees usually) and somebody jumps on it, you will feel the effects because you are also on the same hammock. On similar lines, say you are in a cage made of flexible material. If somebody enters the next cage, you will feel a force towards that person. But you know this is not the case and the attraction is only because of the bend in the cage you are in. Now imagine the same cage in multiple dimensions. This is the web of spacetime we exist in. So, if something approaches us, we feel the tug, but perceive it as gravity. Gravitational Waves are a direct result of this theory of gravity. A major event in the universe (for example, the collision of two black holes) sends ripples through spacetime, which gets weaker as it travels. As a result, the gravitational wave we detected in 2015, due to the collision of two black holes 1.3 billion light years away, was weaker than the vibration of a nucleus by the time it reached the Earth. The LIGO detector was specifically designed to be this sensitive to detect these waves, and we are constructing similar detectors all over the world for this purpose.
Credit: NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center
Cancer, chemotherapy, and radiation: Killing cells that forget how to die
Cancer is a difficult subject to discuss for people undergoing it themselves or their loved ones. And I am one of them because my mother struggled with it in her life, so I have seen her pain. It usually becomes very difficult to understand the situation if one is not aware of the terms used by the doctors or in reports. This is because while those terms make diagnosis fast for doctors (they may not have a lot of time to explain due to so many patients), they fly over a common man’s head and make understanding out of reach, which ideally should not happen. Amidst all this, misinformation and disinformation are also prevalent. So, in this topic, I try to explain the terms used by doctors and in reports in a simple manner. I have also provided recognized resources for further information from the American Cancer Society. If you feel or notice any signs or symptoms, get them tested and diagnosed by a doctor as soon as possible. Cancer risk, prevention and screening guidelines by age
We have not yet been able to completely cure cancer in most cases because we don’t have a permanent cure yet. However, we have other treatment forms among which chemotherapy and radiation therapy are the most commonly used forms. Other than this, there are options like surgery, immunotherapy, targeted therapy, and more. I will discuss some of them briefly and in simple language to make it easy to grasp. To begin with, I will talk about cancer itself. In simple words, your body is made up of cells of different kinds, which work together to keep your body functioning. In their natural cycle, cells are created, they perform the functions they should, they die, and finally, they are removed from the body. But if something goes wrong in the body, the old cells don’t die and new cells keep getting produced. This is cancer, and the body cannot function as it should. This can happen in any part of the body and the cancer is named based on the part of the body it occurs in. Cancer can also occur in the blood cells in addition to other solid parts of the body. The lumps of these over-produced cells are called tumors. Some types of cancers are also hereditary. (What is cancer and understanding your diagnosis)
If this tumor does not spread to other parts of the body, they are called benign (not cancer), and if they do spread, then they are called malignant (cancer). The stages of cancer imply the size of the tumor and how much it has spread to other parts of the body. But how does it spread? Few cancer cells can break away from the tumor and travel to other parts of the body via the bloodstream. Although most of these escaped cells are killed before they start growing, sometimes one or two of them settle in a new area and start growing. This process of spreading cancer cells to other parts is called metastasis. Recognizing signs and symptoms, followed by proper tests and diagnosis by a doctor is extremely crucial for the early detection of cancer (Signs and symptoms, tests and diagnosis, early detection of cancer – guidelines)
As per scientific and medical research until now, the treatment of cancer focuses on curbing the over-production of those cells and the destruction of cancer cells. There are many ways in which this is done. If the tumor is large, then the first option that doctors employ is usually surgery. They would surgically remove the big lump and then employ other methods to clean the remaining cells off the body. Surgery can also be used to take out a small piece of tissue from the lump and test it to find out what type of cancer it is, or do other lab tests on it. This is called a biopsy. Now come the other treatment types into the picture. Chemotherapy or “Chemo” is the most common type of treatment used. It refers to the use of drugs that kill the tumor cells. Not all drugs work in the same way, but they are intended to perform the function of eliminating tumors, stopping the growth of cancer cells, and easing the symptoms caused by cancer. The fine lines of determining: –
1. Which drugs to use (Can be one drug, or a combination of drugs)
2. How to put it into the body (From the mouth – oral, using a cream or gel – topical, through the veins – intravenous, through arteries – intra-arterial, through the spine – intrathecal, through the muscle – intramuscular, and so on. Ask if you are not clear.)
3. The schedule of doing that, and
4. How much to use for every sitting
are determined by the doctor for each case and can be changed depending on the progress and results of the patient (How chemotherapy drugs work).
Radiation Therapy is another common type of therapy used for cancer treatment. This can be used alone or in combination with other forms of treatment. In this therapy, high-energy particles are aimed at affected regions from outside the body. These travel inside and break the DNA in the cancer cells, which kills the cancer cells. Of course, these high-energy particles are very likely to affect the nearby cells as well, but they are quick to recover and work the way they should. While chemotherapy affects the whole body (depending on the type of drug used), radiation therapy is local to the chosen region of treatment. So, what types of particles are chosen to be radiated into the body? There are many types of radiation beam options available like X-Rays, gamma rays, proton beams, electron beams, and so on, and the particle beam is chosen depending on the availability in the treatment center and the requirement of the patient. The most common ones are X-Rays and Gamma rays (Getting External Beam Radiation Therapy). Doctors can also place a radioactive source near the tumor inside the body surgically or prescribe radioactive drugs orally or through the veins (How radiation therapy is used to treat cancer). It goes without saying that special and specific precautions are to be taken for Radiation Therapy.
GPS (Global Positioning System): How do they track us?
Global Positioning System or commonly called GPS is a navigation system that helps us determine any location in the world. But I have seen many critical and trivial questions like – “How does it track us?”, “Is GPS and Google Maps the same thing?”, “Does GPS work through the internet?”, “Do I need to install GPS to use it?”, and so on. I feel it is important to know about the technology you are using so that you can use it in case of emergencies.
The shortest explanation would be: “GPS is a satellite-based navigation system owned by the United States government and it is run by the United States Space Force, which is a branch of the U.S. Armed Forces. It involves receiving radio signals on the ground from at least four GPS satellites and calculating its position in three dimensions.” I will break down this basic principle to explain what happens behind the scene, which will answer most of the basic questions you may have about it. GPS is a system that is made and controlled by the U.S. Space Force, which comes under the U.S. Government of course. They made special satellites having onboard atomic clocks that are able to send signals at a particular range of frequencies (radio, frequency 300 GHz and below) about their status, position, time, etc. At least four of these satellites interact with each other to calculate the time difference between them to know their positions. These radio signals travel at the speed of light to our devices from these satellites. Finally, our device uses the time information from at least four of these satellites to calculate its position on the Earth. Why do I keep mentioning “at least four satellites”? This is because the network of these satellites is made such that there are at least four satellites above our heads at all times. And our position is determined at the intersection of their individual sphere of coverage. Something like this:
But since there are only 31 satellites orbiting the Earth as part of this GPS network, there is bound to be some delay in synchronization between the satellites and our devices. This delay comes due to Time Dilation, which literally means the difference in time. And this time dilation is affected by several other factors like atmosphere, gravity, relativity, etc. So, the calculation of position is done keeping this time lag in the calculation. If anybody is interested in the physics of this, please read this (How time dilation and GPS are related).
So, from this explanation, we can understand that we are able to track ourselves using this system, Google Maps uses the GPS system to provide our location on the map, GPS is made into a device because it has its internal clock and can receive radio signals, and GPS has no relation to the internet because it uses radio signals. GPS is only one network of satellites. Several countries now have their own network of satellites to do the same work due to legal and other issues with using a U.S.-based system. For example, China has the BeiDou Navigation System, Russia has the GLONASS System, the EU has the Galileo Navigation System, India has NavIC System, and Japan has the QZSS System. Japan’s QZSS enhances the GPS accuracy over Asia-Oceania at the moment but is scheduled to go independent in 2023.
Light and vision: Are we seeing light or using light to see things?
We can see everything around us when we have light, but we can’t see light itself. Or can we? You might say that we can look into a torch (don’t do it for real; it will damage your eyes) and see only light. But it is not true. It is just an extremely bright light blinding you to the point of not being able to see clearly. If we reduce the intensity of the light, what would we see? The insides of the torch. But then, one might argue that we can indeed look at other “colored” lights or even white light for that matter. But we are able to see the brightness and not the light itself. It is true that our eyes detect the light photons that bounce off objects that tell us what lies in front of us. From this perspective, we are “looking at” light and not the object. Let’s break this down and understand what we are seeing.
Light is basically photons. And when photons hit objects and go into our eyes, they hit the retina. The special cells in the retina called cones and rods detect the colors by reacting to wavelength. The photoreceptor cells convert these photons into electrical signals and send them to our brains using the optic nerve. Our brain then paints an image for us using the information. If we go by this logic, then we are only seeing photons and not objects, which is true from this perspective. But just like we saw gravity from a larger perspective to understand relativity, we should broaden our view to see the bigger picture. Consider a scenario to understand the phenomenon. You have a box of chocolates. But you can only use your sense of taste to count the number of chocolates in the box. So, someone starts feeding them to you. As you eat the chocolates one by one, you count them in your head. Finally, you say that there are 20 chocolates. That was true, but before you ate them all because there are none in the box right now.
By the same analogy, in order to “see” something, we must know where it is at that moment. If we can see a book, it means that the book is there in front of us and we can point to it. But when the photons hit our eye, they are basically gone because the light that falls into our eyes is a stream of photons. New photons keep coming and the older ones are constantly converted into electrical energy in our retina. So, if your eyes have detected one photon (or light), that particular photon no longer exists. Hence, we can conclude that we use light to perceive things around us visually, but we cannot perceive light itself. Rather, we detect light constantly.
Can you now try to explain using this logic how we are able to see the moon? (HINT: The moon is illuminated by light from the sun)
Viruses aren’t really alive?
There are so many types of microorganisms around, on, and inside us. But we don’t really differentiate between them. However, it is important to do that so that we know what is wrong with us health-wise when the wrong kind of microorganisms strike, so that we can possibly use the right kind of microorganisms to strike back at them. There are several kinds of them like bacteria, viruses, protozoa, and so on. But of the whole lot, viruses are completely different. While we generally assume microorganisms to be living things, viruses are not exactly “alive”. They are actually just a piece of information that can be passed on. A bacteria, for example, is a living thing that has a body, mind, etc. just like any other living thing has a system. But a virus is a set of instructions and can enter human cells, bacteria cells, animal cells. or just any cell. So, even bacteria can be affected by viruses! Weird, but true. So, the virus is just like a computer virus – a file having a set of instructions – that enters the computer and tells the files to corrupt themselves. It is essentially just DNA or RNA wearing a protein coat.
This is the reason why we can’t exactly “kill” viruses since it is not really “alive” in the first place. If a living body is affected by a virus, all we can do is force the cells to forget the information from the virus or kill the ones that know them so that the information passing stops at that point. This is precisely what vaccinations and antivirals do. Vaccinations are a form or component of the actual virus in a highly weakened form that are introduced in the body, prompting our body to see that a wrong kind of information is being passed through the body and has to be stopped. Our body then trains some antibodies to kill any cells having that kind of information, so when the body is faced with that virus at any point in life, it can invoke those already trained antibodies to kill the cells. In case of antivirals, it is a slightly altered version of the virus that just disrupts the viral information being passed on and stops the replication of the wrong information. Major and common examples for such vaccinations are the polio or rabies vaccines. As the world is developing further, we are trying to find vaccinations for other such virus induced cell corruptions like cancer, HIV, etc.
There can be three types of end results to the virus: (1) People can get immune to it over millions of years and the virus just fades out. It just means that it no longer affects us. (2) The species that it affects can die out so the virus is no longer able to spread and hence just ends. This situation may have occurred in the history of the planet, as we don’t even know all of the viruses that affected animals during the ice age, for example. (3) The last option is that the virus becomes so common that it does corrupt cells, but it is not enough for the host to die. And the host recovers, the virus just becomes dormant for a while, and we go about our lives until the virus strikes again with the same mild illness. Just like common cold.
So, listen to the doctor when he suggests different treatments for two people who both seem to have a similar looking infection. If you try to kill the symptoms of a bacterial infection, you can never kill the bacteria and you will keep getting sicker. And you never treat viral infections with antibiotics because there is nothing to actually kill. Keep this science in mind the next time you are trying to understand the doctor’s advice. Stay happy and healthy!
The science of debit and credit cards
We all have debit cards, credit cards, or both. We insert, tap, or swipe them to pay at stores or at ATMs. But the science of how cards work is important so that we know where to use which card, how to keep them, and how to keep them safe. We will consider the example of paying at stores for reference. When we pay at stores, we usually insert or swipe the card on the machine, enter the pin and the transaction is complete. We all assume to an extent that the chip on the card holds all the information and transmits the information to the card. That is partial information and having only partial information can be more dangerous than wrong information. Not all cards have chips. Chip cards are a newer type of bank card. Do you remember everyone used to swipe their cards? This is because earlier, magnetic stripe cards were used. As the name suggests, those cards had a magnetic stripe. Once chip cards started to be used, the insert or tap option became available. So, the chip or the magnetic stripe will transmit information depending on whether we swipe it or insert it. Magnetic stripes work in the same way as audiotapes or harddisk. The process is called magnetic storage. We know that all data is stored in bits of 1 and 0. Whatever information we have can be written in several languages like English, Hindi, German, French, and so on. “Hello” in German is written as “Hallo”. In the same way, binary is a language having The Alphabet of 0 and 1. So, in binary, “Hello” is written as “01001000 01100101 01101100 01101100 01101111”. Just like that, any information or data can be expressed in these bits. These bits are converted into a magnetic field, which is fairly easy as there are only two types of bits being converted into magnetism. This magnetic field is loaded onto the magnetic stripes, which are on the credit or debit cards. Since it is fairly easy to magnetize a stripe, it is also easy to demagnetize it. If you remember, we were warned not to keep our bank cards, phones, etc. near computers or other strong magnetic sources. The reason is simply that our data could get demagnetized and hence, erased. But nowadays, we have chip-and-pin-based cards because it is easy to read magnetic stripes while swiping, and data breaches were becoming very common because no PIN was required. So, now we have chip-and-pin cards, which we insert into the card machine, enter a security PIN, and the transaction is confirmed. In this system, our data is stored on a chip instead of just the magnetic stripe. The advantage, in this case, is that a chip doesn’t only store data, it also acts as a small computer. So, it is able to protect our data using encryption. It doesn’t have a power source by itself but activates when it comes in contact with a reader, and only sends and receives data by encryption. Hence, it is 1000 times safer than magnetic stripe-based cards.
But why is it important to know all this? All this information is important to protect ourselves from identity theft. Wherever possible, pay by inserting your card or tapping to pay. Avoid using swiping machines and ask for alternate methods, if available. And most importantly, when you dispose of your old debit and credit cards, make sure you cut through the chip as well as the black magnetic stripe on the back.
This is just one type of payment. A lot of payments these days happen online, and a lot of thefts happen there. Keep in mind that hackers are making false websites that mimic real websites to steal your information. A few tips to keep in mind before making online payments:
— Check the website you are paying on. It should have a security certificate and the URL (link) starts with HTTPS. This indicates a secure connection.
— Don’t pay on public or unknown wifi networks.
— Don’t use public computers to make payments.
— Use a strong and complex password or PIN.
In addition, read everything before you proceed, keep your receipts, and compare them with your passbook to keep track of all transactions. Inform the bank as soon as possible if you see discrepancies.
Magnetic stripe on a payment card (Image credit: Santeri Viinamäki, CC BY-SA 4.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0, via Wikimedia Commons)
Chip on a payment card (Image credit: RRZEicons, CC BY-SA 3.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0, via Wikimedia Commons)
Why is Polio resurfacing after having been almost eradicated?
For people around and over the age of 60, the memory of polio and its consequences might be in memory. But for a lot of us falling in the younger category, it might be easier to ask “Why do I need the polio vaccine?”. Polio is basically a life-threatening disease caused by the poliovirus, which affects a person’s spinal cord, and can cause paralysis at its extreme. Vaccination drives against polio have brought it under control and helped in eradicating polio from most parts of the world, and the fight is still on. Two types of vaccinations are used against polio – one is the inactivated poliovirus injected by a trained healthcare professional (four shots), and the other is an attenuated or weakened poliovirus given by oral route. Since an inactive or weakened virus is used, the body quickly reacts and produces antibodies to fight the disease. Now that the body is able to identify the poliovirus, it knows how to produce the correct antibodies if it encounters the poliovirus again. In fact, this is how most vaccinations work. While it has been largely under control, there are still some regions in the world that are trying to eradicate polio. However, we are seeing cases of wild poliovirus in recent times in regions of the US, UK, and Israel, where polio was already eradicated. This is happening due to unvaccinated individuals. The only way to keep a virus out of circulation is by continuing vaccinations until the chain is broken, which is what happened with smallpox. But we are still far from eradicating polio yet, and we must continue the chain of vaccinations for more generations before considering ourselves safe from poliovirus. Since the cases of wild poliovirus are few, it is easy for the new generations to ask whether we still need the vaccination. The answer is that yes we do. Please check your vaccination records and keep yourselves updated. Just because we haven’t seen the severity of a disease, it doesn’t mean we should lose our vigil. Outbreaks can occur at any time if the virus still exists in nature. So, the alert is not just for polio, but for any virus that is still existing in nature. Viruses are not living things that can be killed (Read in short about how viruses work). They can only be eradicated by breaking the chain of transmission, and outbreaks are just one infected traveler away.
Radiocarbon dating: How do we know how old is something?
We keep reading about finding ancient artifacts and scientists somehow find out their age. Also, we know how old the Earth, Sun, other planets, the moons, etc. are, but how? The technique called Radiocarbon dating is used for this. Everything is made up of atoms. This is common knowledge. But atoms of what? Carbon majorly! Carbon forms the basis of everything. There can be stable or unstable forms of any element depending on the number of electrons, protons, and neutrons they have. So, in the case of carbon, the most stable form of carbon that everyone and everything has is called Carbon 12, or C12. However, in addition, there is another form of carbon called Carbon 14, or C14, that exists at the same time. There are all kinds of rays and energies hitting us from the universe including cosmic rays. When these cosmic rays hit a form of nitrogen called Nitrogen 14, they get converted into Carbon 14. C14 reacts with oxygen and forms carbon dioxide, which is absorbed by plants. All other living beings when they eat plants and non-living things made of plants get this C14 now. C14, however, is not as stable and decays over the years because it is radioactive. So, say over thousands of years, the concentration of C12 remains the same, but the concentration of C14 reduces. And by finding out the ratio between the two, we can estimate the age of that artifact.
Carbon 14, as I said, is radioactive. But it is very weak and its radiation doesn’t even penetrate the skin cells. These Carbon 14 atoms work for dating anything which is up to 60, 000 years old. Anything older than that (for example, dinosaur fossils) will need a more unstable element that decays over an even longer period. Some of these elements are:
Here we see a term called half-life. It is a pretty commonly heard term as well. To understand this, let’s say I gave you 12 apples and you give me half of it. Now you have 6 apples. Next, you give me half of your remaining apples, so you are left with 3. Then, you again give me half of the remaining apples, so you are left with 1.5 apples. So, you see that in this manner, we can keep halving the number of apples and this process can go on for a long time. The same thing happens with the quantity of C14. Let’s say we are measuring the age of an animal we found that has started to fossilize. It would have had a certain amount of C14 in its body when it died. At some point of time during decay, its body will have half the amount it started with. This is the first half-life. At some point, the C14 quantity will be half of this remaining quantity. This is the second half-life and a quarter of the original quantity. Again at some point, there will be half of this remaining quantity, which is called the third half-life. Likewise, it keeps going like this for several years. And for other materials given in the table above, this half-life is achieved over billions of years and hence, they can be used to find the age of billion-year-old fossils, planets, moons, the Sun, etc.
Surgery basics: Laparoscopic vs open
When someone requires surgery, there are a number of options available to them. While your surgeon is in the best position to decide what works best for you, it is important to understand the meaning of the options provided to you. This knowledge will help you understand the doctor’s instructions during your recovery, which is very important. The two most common methods of surgery adopted in the world are open surgery and laparoscopic surgery. When we get to know from the doctor that surgery is required, we often skip the main question of what the surgery will be, and how would the post-operative care proceed. Open surgery is the most conventional style of surgery, where the surgeon makes a large incision of up to 10 inches in order to fully access the organ or the wound to be treated. In this, a surgeon can cut through tissues, replace organs, join two structures, and basically do everything. But the downside is that the wounds of this surgery take a long time to heal and post-operative care is extremely critical.
Laparoscopic surgery, on the other hand, is a type of minimally invasive surgery. This means that the amount of invasion of medical equipment into the body is minimal. The patient will be put under anesthesia and the surgeon will make several small incisions of less than one centimeter or quarter of an inch, and insert long and narrow instruments having a camera on its head. In this way, the surgeon is able to look inside our body on the monitor and complete the surgery without having to open up the body. This method ensures minimal blood loss and damage to other parts of the body not involved in surgery like the skin, muscles, and tissues. Also, since the incisions are so small, there is minimal pain, recovery is very fast, and post-operative care is easy. Having said this, it is not possible at this stage to do away with open surgery and switch completely to laparoscopic surgery. This is because open surgery is still required in cases of organ transplant, or when the patient cannot be given anesthesia of any kind due to age, or due to heart, kidney, or other chronic problems.
In fact, a laser can also be used during laparoscopic surgery to join structures or tissues together or to repair organs. This type of surgery is called a laser laparoscopy. With so many options available, it can be difficult to figure out the best option. But if you go to the doctor with a basic idea of what each of these types of surgery means, you can make informed discussions with your doctor and understand your body’s requirements.
Laparoscopic surgery for kidney cancer. Credit: Cancer Research UK, CC BY-SA 4.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0, via Wikimedia Commons
Memory and aging: How does the brain age?
Aging is the reality of life, which nobody can change. As our bodies age and deteriorate gradually, our brain does too because it is part of the body. Just like our body undergoes changes in its structure with aging (like shrinking bones, loosening skin, graying hair, longer healing after getting wounded, etc.), our brain structure also undergoes changes that start affecting our behavior, functioning, and memory. If we understand how our brain is structured and memory is created and accessed, we may be able to work on memory retention with age, and that might make our old age slightly easier.
The overall process is similar to keeping your things in storage compartments and retrieving memories is finding your way to the right storage compartment. But the important part is to know how those compartments are allocated so that we can retrieve any information without many issues during old age. The first step is to understand that memory is not a physical thing that is stored somewhere. It is a specific chemical microscopic chemical change and doesn’t physically exist like mass. From memory creation to remembering things, it’s a three-step process – encoding, storage, and retrieval. The first step is encoding, which involves taking information using our senses (seeing, hearing, touching, tasting, smelling, and other non-basic senses like the sense of space, etc.). The signals from these senses are transported as experiences to an area of the brain called the Hippocampus. This part of the brain decides whether this experience is worth remembering. It is then encoded and transferred as electrical pulses by neurons. These neurons forge links between memories, which are called synapses. The brain is capable of forming more than 100 trillion such synapses or links between memories!
These memories are then stored in short-term memory, where it stays for about 20 to 30 seconds. Then it goes into the conscious long-term memory if it is worth remembering. And if it is something like a procedure of life like driving, tying shoelaces, walking, etc., then it is embedded into unconscious memory after repeated usage. This kind of unconscious memory is slow to acquire because it requires repetition, but once it is there, it is far more resilient to changes or losses. However, other memories like events, recognition, facts, names, dates, etc. are encoded into the conscious memory. If any such conscious memory is repeated or revisited several times, it becomes part of unconscious memory (for example, it can happen to teachers who teach specific classes for several years). It was easy up until now, but memory retrieval is where the brain starts deteriorating with age or other medical conditions. Specifically, due to age, the number of synapses starts reducing gradually. This essentially means that links between memories are lost and our brain is not able to recall something simply because the link is lost. In fact, just like our body loses mass with age, our brain does too. And it has been studied that the weight of the brain reduces with age, and it is at its maximum between ages 20 to 30.
So, what’s the solution? Enhancing the unconscious memory is the best way to keep your sanity intact. Transfer information as much as possible into your unconscious memory by repeated usage of conscious knowledge. For example, the repeated chanting of Sanskrit Mantras and Shlokas is part of this process, which is why it is important to understand what we chant so that we can keep up with ourselves even during old age when the synapses are lost and we cannot make conscious connections any more.
Screensavers: We no longer need to be “saved by them”
When we hear screensavers, most of us older people till those born in the 90s get reminded of some classic ones like the mystery house, the astronaut, 3D text, 3D pipes, and so on. Do you remember or have you seen these? Remember staring at the screen and waiting for that one guy in the lower left window in the mystery house screensaver?
These are fresh in the memory of those of us who have seen the invention of computers and the internet, and seen the industry grow, these screensavers are an integral part of our treasured recollections. We have different screensavers now, but do you know why they were called so? They literally used to “save” our screens. Monitors have come a long way since the beginning of computers and now we have LED, LCD, QLED, etc. However, we first had CRT screens (those fat and big monitors). CRT stands for Cathode Ray Tube, so they had to have a tube and hence, were big. It is a vacuum tube, which has electrons hitting a phosphorescent screen and producing a picture. This technology has a drawback though. If a picture is projected for very long on the screen, the projected areas of the screen are burned in, and “ghost” images are seen on the screen. This would obviously change the properties of the phosphorescent screen permanently. In order to save our screens and increase their lifetime, programs were written that activate and show constantly moving images to avoid keeping anything static on the screen. Since LED and LCD screens replaced the old CRT screens, these screensavers became more of an entertainment. But it also serves the purpose of password protection, where the system can be set to ask for a password on waking up from a screensaver. Nowadays, screensavers can be used to activate specific tasks like virus scans, or voluntary computing (Like the SETI@Home project) that only run when the computer is idle.
Mixing bleach with something: Never do it
Bleach is a common household item and everyone knows about it. But did you know that it is a danger waiting to happen? Of course, one should never consume or touch it with bare hands. But mistakes are possible, which seem innocent, but are so much more dangerous. Some chemistry is important in life. Bleach is basically a dilute solution of sodium hypochlorite, and is used to remove stains and disinfect surfaces. And when it is mixed with ammonia, it releases a toxic gas called chloramine, which irritates the eyes, nose, lungs, and the whole airway, and can cause respiratory problems. And ammonia can be found in floor cleaners, glass cleaners, disinfectant sprays, and so on. Bleach should also never be mixed with acid because it releases chlorine gas. And this toxic gas can not only cause irritation to your eyes, nose, and lungs but also clog your airway and cause suffocation within minutes depending on the concentration of exposure. And such a mistake of mixing bleach with acids can happen while innocently trying to remove Coca-Cola stains, for example. Citrus fruits like lemon and orange, vinegar, and even carbonated beverages contain acid. Moreover, mixing bleach with rubbing (isopropyl) alcohol produces chloroform, which has the power of irritating the nervous system.
Since bleach is one of the most inexpensive and commonly available cleaners, one should be aware of the dangers it can pose before using it. It is true that many people might have already been using it wrong for several years now and wonder why they have respiratory problems. So, always read the label first and never mix bleach with anything other than water or laundry detergent.
Taste to test: How do we taste food?
We often take our senses for granted but freak out when something happens to them, not understanding what went wrong with them, whether temporary or permanent. Take the sense of taste, for example. Everything works well until we get sick and lose the ability to taste anything at all. Did you know that we taste because of saliva? The food that we eat must be mixed with saliva in order for us to taste it. So, the diagram of different flavors being tasted by different regions of the tongue is not right. All the flavors are equally detected on all regions of the tongue, with the edges being more sensitive, but to all flavors equally. Only the back of the tongue is more sensitive to bitter flavors, which is a defense mechanism of the body to prevent us from swallowing poisonous or toxic foods.
When we put food in our mouth, the saliva releases enzymes that start the digestion of food. Do you notice the bumps on your tongue? They are the actual “taste buds”, which lead to nerve endings that collect chemical information from the tongue and send signals to your brain. However, our nose is a very important part of this process. These chemical signals are also passed to the nose whose receptors decode the “taste” signals sent by the tongue and tell the brain about the flavor. That’s why when one is sick or their nose is stuffy, they are not able to tell the flavor because the nose is currently incapable of playing its part. Try this: Eat a piece of chocolate with your eyes closed and hold your nose. You will only be able to tell sweet or bitter and not the actual flavor of the chocolate. Now let go of your nose and you are suddenly exposed to so many flavors. Do you remember your elders suggesting you rub a piece of sweet lemon on your tongue when you aren’t able to taste food? It helps in removing the bacteria and deposits on your tongue so that your taste buds are free and clean.
What can we do to ensure we maintain this ability to taste? Of course, we should take care of our health overall and not get a stuffy nose. One reason for the degradation of this sense of taste is age. As we age, the number of taste buds reduces and the ability to detect too many flavors slowly reduces too. This is not in our hands, but we can try to change our flavor palette with age to accommodate the abilities of the tongue and nose so that we don’t lose interest in eating altogether. Other than this, smoking and poor dental hygiene affect our ability to detect flavors. Plus, not drinking enough water makes the mouth dry and greatly affects the formation of saliva, which is the first step in tasting.
Cold burns
Everyone knows that heat and fire burn. And when our skin or any other organ burns, it causes tissue damage. The same tissue damage can happen due to cold as well. When we hold an ice cube, our fingers start to go numb after a while because of the cold and we let go of the ice. But there are situations in which we may not have enough time to save ourselves. I am talking about liquid nitrogen, which is being used in the food industry these days. Although liquid nitrogen is only used to freeze the ice cream, it is possible to accidentally ingest some if some remained trapped in the ice cream without our knowledge. There’s something about liquid nitrogen that needs to be known. We know that water becomes solid at 0 degrees Celcius, stays liquid up to 100 degrees Celcius and boils above 100 degrees Celcius to turn into gas. Similarly, nitrogen does the same at a lower range. You can understand this in analogy to nitrogen having a much lower octave than water. And by low I mean -196 degrees Celcius! This just means that nitrogen ends up boiling at regular room temperature, which we can already guess from the fact that our atmosphere holds nitrogen in the gas form. To give you the context of how this process happens, look at the liquid nitrogen boiling at room temperature. This is a clip I recorded in my lab:
Do you see the liquid bubbling, but also forming frost on the sides of the beaker almost immediately? That’s how cold boiling liquid nitrogen is (-196 degrees C or -320 degrees F), compared to normal water ice. So, if you are using liquid nitrogen for freezing your ice cream, be very careful and read further. In general, liquid nitrogen is added to ice cream in the end of the recipe and since it is extremely cold, it freezes the ice cream almost instantaneously without giving it time to form ice crystals or air bubbles. This results in a much creamier ice cream. The safest and most intelligent option is to NOT DO IT. But of course, humans will never shy away from doing anything stupid. So, the right way to do this is to be in a well-ventilated area, wear temperature-resistant gloves and safety goggles, and add little amounts of liquid nitrogen while stirring the ice cream mixture constantly until the ice cream freezes. But it is important to stir it well and make sure there is no liquid nitrogen remaining. Be aware that you CANNOT eat liquid nitrogen ice like normal ice. If you do, then other than destroying your inside tissues by cold burns, this nitrogen will boil inside your body, expand significantly and choke you, resulting in immediate death. Remember to “boil off” all nitrogen in the ice cream before even touching it. And if somebody is serving you liquid nitrogen ice cream, stir it yourself completely. Remember the line: If it’s too hard to stir, it is too cold to eat!
Read this health guideline before attempting to even consider this idea: https://ehs.yale.edu/sites/default/files/files/liquid-nitrogen-ice-cream.pdf
Why BODMAS or PEDMAS?
Remember being told to use BODMAS or PEDMAS as a rule in your mathematics classes? And these days we see so many memes asking math questions, whose answers are supposed to be calculated using BODMAS only. For example, what do we get for this: “20 + 20 – 10 * 0 + 2 + 2”? The correct answer using the BODMAS rule is 44. BODMAS stands for Bracket Orders Division Multiplication Addition Subtraction, and PEDMAS stands for Parenthesis Exponential Division Multiplication Addition Subtraction. These are both mathematical rules used to calculate the answer to an arithmetic problem like the one I asked previously. They are essentially the same thing, just given different acronyms depending on country, and tell us the order of operations in solving a mathematical problem. But who made this rule the standard and why? Would math be wrong if we don’t use this rule? Is the universe telling us to do BODMAS? Why not MSBDOA, DOSBAM, or any of the other 720 permutations? The answer is very underwhelming but logical. BODMAS is a standard like any other standard in the world. It is a system used so that everyone’s results are the same for a given mathematical problem. However, the answer to why BODMAS is simply, logic.
Say we have a simple addition problem: 2+2+2+2+2+2+2+2+2+2+2+2+2+2+2+2+2+2+2+2. The answer is 40. You may do it yourself as well. But we have to agree that this is a little tedious, and we wouldn’t be surprised if we missed a number while adding. So, we can simplify it using multiplication because it is just repeated addition. This problem is nothing but 2 added 5 times, and this process is repeated 4 times: (2 * 5) + (2 * 5) + (2 * 5) + (2 * 5). Since one operation is repeated 4 times, I can shorten it to 4 * (2 * 5). As you see, the tedious addition of so many 2s has become just two multiplications and gives us the same result as before, but this time using a systematic approach. Hence, breaking the rule wouldn’t destroy the universe or anything like that. Even within this rule, division and multiplication are interchangeable. Also, addition and subtraction are interchangeable. The only important thing is to do the complex calculations before doing the basic ones. That is the reason we open the brackets/parenthesis first, then do the multiplications and divisions, which are nothing but repeated addition and repeated subtraction respectively, and finally do simple addition and subtraction.
At this stage, one might wonder how addition and subtraction are interchangeable. For example, 9 – 6 + 3 gives us two options: either 9 – (6 + 3) = 0 or (9 – 6 ) + 3 = 6. Both are correct. The only thing missing was the indication in the question of what is expected. But since there are different ways of understanding and problem-solving methods in the world, a standard was created so that everyone approaches a given problem in the same order to avoid any confusion like this.
Hence, BODMAS or PEDMAS is not really a “rule”. Rather it is just a logical standard like any other standard method in the world to make mathematics uniform and easy for everyone.
Increasing pollen allergies
Pollen is the powdery, granular substance that is present in the flowers of trees, grasses, and weeds, which leads to the fertilization of the plant. It is usually dispersed by insects and wind so that it reaches from the male part of the plant to the female part of the plant. While pollen is the reason for fruit production and is an important component of the Earth’s atmosphere and as a result, the Earth biome, many people develop allergies against pollen. These allergies could be against one or several types of pollen. The most common symptoms of having pollen allergy are hay fever (runny, itchy, and congested nose, sneezing, red eyes, etc.), asthma, coughing, wheezing, and so on when one breathes in or comes in contact with pollen. And the allergy itself is due to the body trying to fight pollen and is genetic in a lot of cases.
The important question here is why some people end up with this allergy even though they have never faced a problem in several years of their lives. For example, we never really heard much about pollen allergy being a common problem while living in India. But I have seen many Indians develop an allergy to pollen after travelling to a country in Europe or America. Is their immune system somehow weakening here? No. It can be due to certain types of pollen that are common in certain countries and not in others. Some people blame this increasing pollen allergy problem on the Botanical Sexism theory. It is claimed that according to this theory, guidelines were issued around 1946 in the USA that more “male” trees must be planted than female in urban areas due to the seed pollution caused by “female” trees and eventually due to many countries starting to follow this policy, we have too much pollen and not enough seeds to be fertilized, leading to Botanical Sexism. However, this is a flawed theory because many people misquote the original set of guidelines, which said to plant more male cottonwood trees and this line wasn’t meant for all trees in general, which is anyway not really possible because most plants and trees are monoecious, polyamorous, or co-sexual. That means they have both male and female reproductive parts. Only a small variety of plants are dioecious, meaning they have either male or female reproductive parts.
Credits: W.carter, CC BY-SA 4.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0, via Wikimedia Commons
If you developed pollen allergies suddenly, it simply means that you were not exposed to pollen in too much quantity before, or you weren’t exposed to that particular variety of pollen before. But then, what is the reason for more and more people getting pollen allergies these days compared to olden times? Blame this on climate change. As greenhouse emissions increase, more and more carbon dioxide is trapped within the Earth’s atmosphere. Among other effects, it increases the overall temperature on the Earth and also stimulates plants to increase production. Therefore, there is more pollen production. Climate change is a real issue and people need to wake up and see it before it gets worse. This is just one small, but permanent effect of climate change that we are seeing in the world. There are obviously several other factors involved in increased pollen allergies, but this is one of the major and most worrying causes.
There is much more happening up in the mountains that is affecting everything else in the world. More on this soon on my website. I will put the link here as well when my article on climate change is published.
Speed of dark
The speed of light is known by many people. Even if you don’t know the exact speed, you are aware that it is the fastest speed possible, so obviously it is a pretty high number. For context, light travels about 300 million meters in 1 second. If I ask you the speed of dark, what would you say? Dark is basically the absence of light. So, the speed of the dark should be the same as the speed of light. But is it this easy? Let’s throw in some problems because they obviously exist with everything. Let’s say I use an extremely powerful torch and throw a light beam on the moon. I then bring a pencil in front of the light so that it casts a shadow on the moon. Now, if I move the pencil by a centimetre, the shadow of my finger would appear to move several kilometres on the moon. So, does this mean that shadow broke the speed barrier and moved faster than light? Take a look at this video. Compare the speed of moving the pencil and the speed of the shadow. The shadow is obviously faster.
However, this is just an illusion. It is hard to visualize but bear with me for a few minutes. The speed of light is the distance that light photons travel from the torch to the moon and then to our eyes in one second. But the dark is already there. Shadow is not a real, physical entity that is travelling to the moon. It is already there and hence is not moving. Light is being stopped from reaching the moon by the pencil. The real question to be asked here is:
Why does the shadow become bigger as the object moves closer to the light source? Think about it. If you keep the pencil closer to the torch, it blocks more light and hence casts a bigger shadow.
Hence, the projection appears to move faster than light. But it is just the blocking of photons by an object close to the light source. We can say that the speed of “dark” is equal to the speed of light because a shadow is only an apparent reality and not a physical entity.
Point to ponder: What else in this world is an apparent reality? You, me, everything? What do you think?
VPN: Virtual Private Network
Virtual Private Network (VPN) is being used extensively these days and a lot of experts also advise us to do so. Ever wondered why? Isn’t our regular internet connection secure anymore? (Brief of internet and servers: Science in ten minutes – WHAT IS THE INTERNET?)
Let’s start with VPN itself. It is an arrangement where an apparent private network is achieved using encryption over the internet. In simple words, when you connect to a VPN server, you are connecting your network to a server different from yours. So, you access the internet via that server instead of your own. As a result, it hides the IP address and location of your computer from any third parties and even your own Internet Service Provider (ISP). In addition, nobody will be able to hack into this communication channel between your server and the VPN server because the data sent and received is transformed into an unreadable format that can only be decoded with a secret key or password. So, even if someone gets their hands on your data, it will be useless to them as it is gibberish without its key and decoding it will take millions of years for a computer. There are more advantages to this service. If the VPN server is located in another country, you will be able to access regional content that may not be available in your country. One may ask why we need VPN if we trust our ISP. Even if you trust your ISP, browsing history or IP address may be shared with advertisers, government, or police, or can be hacked relatively easily. VPN protects against all of that. However, a few things must be kept in mind before choosing VPN and VPN providers:
1. While your data and IP address are hidden from everyone else, it is shared with the VPN host. So, make sure that you choose a reliable and professional VPN service. A good VPN provider generally never stores logs of anyone’s data. Make sure to read the policies of the provider beforehand.
2. VPN protects your internet identity and secures your data by encrypting it over the network, it does not protect your computer itself. So, your computer must have anti-virus and malware protection software installed.
3. VPN only protects the data transmitted over the internet. Hence, it has no control over your standard texts and calls.
Remember: A VPN is only as secure as its provider.
“Natural” vs “Synthetic” preservatives
Preservatives are literally the substances that preserve our products like food, medicines, and other personal care products. They are found in almost all packaged products and can be either “natural” or “synthetic”. Synthetic preservatives are substances that are created in a lab. However, people are quick to dismiss all substances made in laboratories as unhealthy compared to natural substances. A lot of these synthetic preservatives are the exact same composition as their natural counterpart, but they are made in the lab so that the uniformity of the composition is maintained. This is because a plant’s chemical composition can be highly variable due to changing seasons, environmental conditions, or other biological changes to the plant. Development in the lab ensures that safety is maintained. In addition, natural preservatives may be effective against microbial growth in one batch but not as effective in another batch in the same quantity. In other words, the consistency and potency of natural preservatives varies from batch to batch. Natural preservatives are obviously obtained directly from plants, making them simpler compounds for the body to process. Some examples are lemon juice, rosemary extract, salt, etc. However, not all natural preservatives are healthy or as effective as synthetic ones. In many cases, a huge amount of natural preservative may not be able to effectively accomplish the task that a small amount of synthetic preservative will easily perform. In addition, there are several human-designed preservatives as well. This information is useful for you when you pick up a box of some product in the market and look at the ingredients. Just because you see names of chemicals or codes like E200, E270, etc., do not put that box back. For example, E200 (EU food additive numbering system) is sorbic acid, a naturally occurring organic acid found in some berry species. It is generally used as a preservative in foods with low water content like cheese, meat, baked goods, and so on to prevent the formation of moulds. Similarly, E270 (EU food additive numbering system) is just lactic acid that is produced by bacteria in fermented foods like cottage cheese (paneer). Preservatives are also used in medicines to prevent microbial contamination that may cause diseases.
Before blaming the use of chemicals in food, read and understand the list of ingredients. Let me leave you with an eye-opener: Would you eat a food that contains retinol, cholecalciferol, alpha-tocopherol, menadione, thiamine, riboflavin, nicotinic acid, nicotineamide, pyridoxal phosphate, cobalamine, and a bunch of such substances? If your answer was a sharp no, then let me burst your bubble. These are nothing but Vitamins A, D, E, K, B1, B2, B3, B6, and B12, and all these and more are found in apples.
Expansion of space
In one of the first topics of the “Science in ten minutes” space (https://priyafied.wordpress.com/science-in-ten-minutes/#gravitational-waves), we saw how gravity affects spacetime. It is now time to see how spacetime affects everything else. Space is expanding; constantly. And we know that the Big Bang is the best theory that explains how the universe started expanding. Although the term Big Bang can lead to ambiguity and confusion and it actually does. Many people presume that the universe started with a “bang” quite literally. But it didn’t really start with a blast; instead, it was an extremely fast expansion. But how can something expand without blasting off? I am writing down an experiment here for you all to perform to get a visual of the idea of space expansion. The first clarity that one needs is that it is not just the space between the objects that is expanding, but it is the stretching of space itself. To put this into perspective, a meter scale today looks stretched compared to a meter scale from 10 billion years ago by a significant amount.
Let us do a very simple space expansion ourselves to see it happen in real-time. All you need is a balloon or a piece of elastic band, and a marker or sketch pen. Take the balloon or elastic and make a few dots here and there approximately at a distance of 1 centimetre or so from each other. Now inflate the balloon (or stretch the elastic). Do you see the spots themselves stretching along with the distance between the spots also increasing? Congratulations! You created your own model of spacetime expansion in 2D!
I took the images from the Experiment Archive by Ludwig Wellander. Check out this and other simple experiments by him here: https://www.experimentarchive.com/experiments/expanding-space/
Now imagine the same model in 3D where spheres are expanding instead of circles. This is what spacetime expansion looks like in outer space to a human being. In general, space has many more dimensions than the three we know – length, breadth, and height, and all of these dimensions are simultaneously stretching at the same time at all locations. In this experiment, do you also see that the spots next to each other seem to go away from each other slower compared to those spots that are farther from each other? This is precisely what astronomers have observed in the universe. The farther an object is from the Earth, the faster it is moving away. And this is true from the perspective of every object in the universe. Now you have a model in your hand to visualize how that happens. How cool!
Note: Some of you might have the follow-up question that if space is expanding like this, then why do astronomers say that our Milky Way galaxy is going to collide with the Andromeda galaxy at some point in the future? This happens because if two space bodies (large enough like galaxies) are close enough for gravity between them to be strong, then gravity overpowers the spacetime expansion and those two bodies also move towards each other while expanding simultaneously.
Types of cow milk (A1 and A2)
Cow milk is one of the most widely consumed milk in the world. But did you know there are two major types of cow milk being marketed right now? You might have heard about the A1 and A2 types of cow milk that are available and the promotion that A2 milk is healthier to consume. Let’s break it down and understand that we may not even need to make the switch (in India specifically). As we know, milk is a major source of proteins and contains two types of them – caseins and whey proteins. Basically, the differentiation between A1 and A2 comes from the type of beta-casein protein present in the milk. A1 beta-casein is a natural mutation of the A2 beta-casein that occurred over a thousand years ago and when A1 beta-casein is digested, a compound called beta-casomorphin 7 (BCM7) is produced in the body. This compound is associated with some effects on the gastrointestinal functions of the human body, like a slight slowing down of the frequency at which the stomach and intestine squeeze to digest food, or slightly increased mucus formation. However, we cannot jump to conclusions based on this alone. While A1 beta-casein effects may sound concerning, it is important to make a one-to-one comparison with regular cow milk before forming any opinions on this issue. The current status of research is that the slightly worrying effects of A1 beta-casein are not substantially evident as compared to regular cow milk which may contain a mixture of A1 and A2 beta-caseins. The proportions of this mixture depend on the genetic makeup of the cow itself, which is different for different geographical locations on the planet. However, the results from the studies conducted to date to study the negative effects of A1 beta-caseins are not conclusive as more data needs to be gathered and long-term effects are yet to be understood. The crux of this debate between A1 vs. A2 boils down to the tolerance of BCM-7 from A1 vs. smaller peptides by A2. Smaller peptides are generally easier to digest by people and BCM-7 may lead to minor gastrointestinal effects for some people. It is crucial to note here that symptoms due to this may mimic that of lactose intolerance. So, it does not mean that lactose intolerant people can drink A2 milk. Lactose and beta-caseins are two different things. Most importantly, this debate of A1 vs. A2 is being pushed based on studies mainly performed on other animals, while studies on humans are still inconclusive at best.
Despite this lack of evidence from human studies, several companies have gotten into the field to say that A2 milk is better and free from negative effects. Coming to the genetic makeup of cows, most Indian cows and buffaloes are of A2 type already, so your regular cow or buffalo milk was already perfectly fine for you if it did not create any problems for you before.
More on this:
https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/opinion/columns/the-hype-over-branded-a2-milk/article23605826.ece
https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/a1-vs-a2-milk
https://nationalfoodinstitute.com.au/nfi/a1-vs-a2-milk-whats-the-difference/
Lethality of apple seeds
Do you enjoy munching on the core of your apple, or are you simply an apple enthusiast who prefers this fruit over others? I am sure it must have occurred to you at least once while eating an apple about ingesting its seeds and how they can produce cyanide in your body. For those who didn’t know about this, apple seeds contain a compound called amygdalin which is made up of cyanide and sugar, and when it is metabolized, it produces hydrogen cyanide (HCN) in the body. A potentially lethal dose of HCN is capable of killing a person within mere minutes. But before you develop any irrational fears about apple consumption, let’s explore the details. While the fact I stated above is true, it is also true that only after the total HCN in the body exceeds a certain amount, it becomes a lethal dose. What if you accidentally eat some? The apple seeds are dangerous only when chewed through and crushed. Otherwise, they will just pass through your system and come out of the other end as it is. To produce enough HCN in the body, one will have to chew and eat at least several thousand apple seeds, which is quite unlikely and rare. The number depends on the variety of the apple. What does this mean for those who eat apple cores? Unless you are eating your 18th or 19th consecutive apple core, while chewing all seeds of each apple, you will be fine.
What if the seeds are crushed and ingested, such as when consuming apple juice or applesauce? What does this mean for those drinking apple juice or apple sauce? Will the apple seeds possibly crushed with the apple by juice companies damage you? This is a legitimate question and there have been studies on this. In the study, apple juice was produced in the lab under a controlled atmosphere, and several apple juices were also studied as a comparison. The amount of amygdalin was measured for each case and it was found that the numbers vary a lot depending on the type of apple used to make the juice. The amount of HCN produced in each case was determined upon metabolization and overall, it was determined that an adult will have to drink at least 10 litres and a child about 8 litres of apple juice in a day, which is highly unlikely. So eat your apples without fear and obviously avoid seeds. But remember that accidentally ingesting a few seeds will not be dangerous as far as HCN poisoning is concerned. However, one may choke on them; so be careful in that respect.
Some more information on this: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0308814614013077
Carcinogens in toothpaste?
It’s time to clear up the confusion surrounding carcinogens in toothpaste, as misinformation is spreading rapidly. Recently, I came across a video where someone claimed that toothpaste contains cancer-causing chemicals, raising concerns about our daily morning routine. While it’s easy to be alarmed by such statements, it’s crucial to take a moment to evaluate and understand the facts. The mere mention of chemicals often triggers anxiety, but it’s important to remember that not all chemicals are harmful. Take, for example, sodium chloride, the chemical name for table salt. The chemicals in question in toothpaste are “sodium mono fluoride” and “sodium lauryl sulfate.” Firstly, there is no such thing as “sodium mono sulphate.” After some research, I discovered that people are likely referring to “sodium mono fluoro phosphate,” a common ingredient in most toothpastes. Contrary to misinformation, this compound actually strengthens teeth by preventing demineralization and serves as a source of fluoride, a vital component in preventing tooth decay. Whether the source of fluoride is sodium mono fluoro phosphate or sodium fluoride, both are beneficial for oral health. You can learn more about fluorides and their sources here. Importantly, fluoride is not a carcinogen and is only toxic in substantial quantities, primarily for children under 2 years of age.
The other chemical, “Sodium lauryl sulfate” (SLS), is used in most toothpastes as a foaming agent to create lather while brushing. Major toothpaste brands like Colgate and Sensodyne address some misconceptions about SLS on their websites, but let’s fill in the gaps. They explain that SLS is not classified as a carcinogen, serves as a surfactant, and only becomes potentially toxic if its chemical composition is altered. As a surfactant, SLS may cause skin inflammation if left on for an extended period, but this is common sense, and most of us have been advised not to do so. Remember your parents telling you not to keep toothpaste in your mouth for too long? This is why. Concerns about SLS being carcinogenic stem from the byproduct called 1,4-dioxane formed during its manufacturing process. While this compound is potentially carcinogenic for humans, it hasn’t been definitively established, and studies are ongoing. In comparison, alcohol is a known carcinogen, yet it’s consumed without much thought. Moreover, regulations worldwide limit the quantity of 1,4-dioxane in toothpaste to 0.01%. Unless you have sensitive gums or specific dental care needs, SLS-based toothpaste is generally safe to use.
Leaf colour science
Plants often look green to our eyes, but not all parts of a plant are green. They can come in various colours. So why do they look the way they do? We’ll focus on the colour green, but this explanation can apply to other colours too, not just on Earth but possibly on planets around different types of stars. The key idea is that the colour of something means it’s absorbing all colours of light except the one it appears to be. For example, when someone has dark skin, it means their skin is absorbing more light than someone with lighter skin. If a plant looks white, like the Monotropa uniflora, also known as the ghost plant, it’s because it doesn’t do photosynthesis. Instead, it gets its nutrients from another plant. White plants reflect all the light, so they appear white.
Now, let’s talk about green plants. They have something called chlorophyll and other pigments. These pigments absorb most of the colours in the sunlight, except for green. It may seem strange because a lot of the Sun’s light is in the green part of the spectrum. So, why do green plants not absorb it? First, it’s essential to understand that chlorophyll doesn’t reflect green light; it just doesn’t absorb it as efficiently as other colours. That’s why we see green. But if plants wanted to be super efficient, they might want to absorb all the light, making them appear black. But that doesn’t happen. Some scientists suggest that plants prioritize sustainability over maximum power. They’ve evolved to block out some parts of the Sun’s light to avoid drying out from too much sun. However, this explanation isn’t complete because plants convert sunlight into electrical energy through chlorophyll.
In 2016, a physicist named Nathaniel Gabor and his team studied how leaves harvest light. They found that plants prefer efficiency over sustainability. Plants convert almost all the photons that hit chlorophyll into electrons. Fluctuations in light intensity reaching the leaf can create inefficiencies. Too few electrons can lead to an energy shortage, while too many electrons can cause problems like the formation of free radicals. So, plants have found a balance by not absorbing the most energetic part of the Sun’s light, settling for just the blue and red light. If our planet had a red sun, plants might evolve differently to absorb more light efficiently, and they could appear black or have different colours based on the available light. In the end, plant colouration is influenced by various factors, including the type of star they orbit, their environment, and evolution. It’s a fascinating puzzle!
ACHOO Syndrome
Sneezing typically occurs as a response to exposure to infectious agents or inhaling irritant particles, dust, or chemical fumes. But do you sneeze on sudden exposure to light? I do, and I didn’t realize that it was a specific response to light that not all people have. The actual phenomenon known as “Photic Sneeze Reflex”, is called ACHOO syndrome humorously and informally. ACHOO syndrome is an acronym for “autosomal dominant compelling helio-ophthalmic outburst syndrome.” This reflex causes some individuals to sneeze when they are exposed to bright light, particularly when they move from a dark environment into a well-lit one. It is believed to have a genetic component, often running in families, and is estimated to affect around 35% of the population. When a person with this reflex encounters a sudden increase in light, it can trigger a sneezing response. A study tested people who have this reflex and those who don’t. They showed them a checkerboard pattern and flashing lights while recording their brain activity. They found that people with the reflex have a more sensitive part of their brain that deals with seeing things (visual cortex). They also found that the tickling feeling in the nose of those with the reflex is linked to other parts of their brain. This suggests that the photic sneeze reflex is not just a simple reaction but involves specific parts of the brain that deal with seeing and feeling things.
The exact mechanism behind the photic sneeze reflex is not fully understood, but it is thought to involve the interaction between the optic nerve, responsible for transmitting visual signals, and the trigeminal nerve, which controls sneezing. The abrupt exposure to bright light may overstimulate the optic nerve, resulting in the activation of the sneeze reflex. While the term “ACHOO syndrome” is not medically recognized, it is often playfully used to describe this reflex. It’s generally considered a harmless and quirky trait rather than a serious medical condition.
Geomagnetic storms
The Northern Lights, or “Aurora Borealis,” are now in season! Did you know they’re linked to geomagnetic storms? Let’s explore this connection. Geomagnetic storms, often mentioned in the news during disruptions to communications, coincide with the most stunning displays of the Northern Lights. This connection stems from the Sun not only providing energy as photons but also releasing charged particles—electrons, protons, and alpha particles—at high energies. The Sun’s outer layer continuously emits a stream of these charged particles known as the solar wind. When there’s a burst of solar wind in all directions, Earth gets hit by the particles like a shock wave. Thankfully, Earth’s magnetic field shields us, but the ionosphere interacts with the charged particles. Depending on the solar ejection’s intensity, it can affect the Earth’s electrical grid.
The famous Carrington Event in 1859 was a notable occurrence. A massive burst of charged particles called a Coronal Mass Ejection, reached Earth in just 18 hours instead of the usual three to four days. This event caused induced voltage spikes, shocking telegraph operators and igniting fires in the United States and Europe. Unusually, the Northern Lights were visible as far south as Hawaii, Mexico, Cuba, and Italy. Similar intense events happen roughly every 500 years.
As these charged particles enter Earth, they’re guided by the magnetic field to the poles. There, they collide with gas molecules, resulting in a vibrant emission of colours—the Northern Lights. The Carrington Event, with its abundant and energetic particles, made these lights visible far beyond the usual polar regions. It’s fascinating how such a violent event can give rise to such a beautiful natural display!
And for those wondering, these lights are not exclusive to the North. In the Southern Hemisphere, during the winter, similar lights, known as Aurora Australis, grace the South Polar region.
Generative AI
Artificial Intelligence (AI) is carving out its niche in the world, gradually weaving into our daily lives. Just as we were adapting to the concept of AI, a new player emerged – Generative AI. This technology has the ability to create diverse content, including images, videos, text, and synthetic data. While it may seem groundbreaking, the roots of generative AI trace back to the 1960s with the inception of chatbots. However, it wasn’t until 2014, marked by the introduction of generative adversarial networks (GANs), that generative AI gained the capability to authentically produce images, videos, and audio featuring real people. This newfound capability has opened doors to various opportunities, enhancing movie dubbing and facilitating the creation of immersive educational content. Concurrently, it has also sparked concerns about deepfakes – digitally altered images or videos – and potential cybersecurity threats to businesses. These threats could involve deceptive requests convincingly mimicking communication from an employee’s superior.
The expansion of generative AI has been significantly influenced by two key factors: Transformers and Large Language Models. Transformers, a form of machine learning, allow the system to consider the entire context of text simultaneously, capturing intricate relationships and dependencies. This enables AI to analyze not only words, but also delve into areas such as code, proteins, chemicals, and DNA. Large Language Models are robust, data-intensive models with an extensive number of parameters, enabling them to comprehend complex language patterns and relationships. Despite these breakthroughs, we are still in the early stages of applying generative AI. Nevertheless, the progress made thus far indicates the potential for generative AI to reshape the fundamental operations of businesses. In the future, this technology could contribute to coding, drug design, product development, business process innovation, and the transformation of supply chains.
Mobile phones at petrol pumps
Do you remember being told not to use your phones at petrol pumps or gas stations? They tell you that it may cause a fire. But do you know why? Phones emit electromagnetic radiation all the time, which is a form of energy. Although the risk is very, very low, this radiation can have enough energy to create a spark and if that spark comes into contact with the flammable petrol or gasoline, it can start a fire. But this kind of situation has not been documented yet in reality. However, it is theoretically possible and the result can be catastrophic. So, it is best avoided. Always follow safety guidelines posted at gas stations and be cautious about static electricity, but there is no need to be overly concerned about mobile phones causing fires at the pump. This raises a question about the safety of online payment using our phones at petrol pumps and gas stations. The danger comes from the amount of electromagnetic signal released, which is maximum during phone calls for obvious reasons, even if it is a data-based call (like WhatsApp calls etc.). But for safety, keep a safe distance from the filling nozzle during payment.
The more immediate and highly likely disaster that might occur is fire due to static charge. Static charge accumulates on you when you rub two surfaces. How can such a situation occur at a petrol pump you ask? For example, if you sit in the car and then go out and come in contact with the nozzle (whether or not you are handling the nozzle yourself), the static on you due to rubbing against the car seat can cause a spark and subsequently, fire.
Why do ears ring suddenly?
Have you been noticing any unusual noises in your ears and find yourself uncertain about what steps to take next? If that’s the case, you’ve landed in the right spot. Rest assured, you’re not alone; in fact, almost everyone experiences this type of auditory phenomenon at some point in their lives. What you’re likely encountering is known in audiology circles as transient ear noise—a brief episode of ringing or whistling, sometimes followed by a momentary decrease in hearing (lasting less than 30 seconds). Typically, these episodes occur in one ear at a time and may be accompanied by a sensation of ear blockage. Tinnitus, a broad term encompassing the perception of sound without an external source, is often described as ringing, buzzing, or humming in the ears. Transient ear noise, although technically falling under the umbrella of tinnitus due to the perception of sound without an external source, differs in that it occurs randomly for very brief periods. To distinguish between tinnitus and transient ear noise, it’s essential to consider the duration and frequency of the sensation. Unlike tinnitus, transient ear noise usually vanishes within seconds and doesn’t necessitate diagnostic testing, sound therapy, or other treatments.
Typically, transient ear noise is accompanied by a temporary reduction in hearing and a muffled feeling in the affected ear. Tinnitus can have various underlying causes, often associated with hearing loss. If you’re experiencing these auditory sensations, it’s advisable to consult an audiologist or physician for a thorough evaluation of the tinnitus.
While tinnitus doesn’t have a single “cure,” there are numerous management options available. In cases where hearing loss is present, hearing aids can be beneficial. Additionally, therapy focused on managing tinnitus through sound therapy and lifestyle adjustments is an option for individuals dealing with more severe tinnitus.
How does a fly contaminate food?
Did a fly land on your food? You swatted it away but are you wondering how safe it is to eat that food now? Musca domestica, commonly known as the house fly, stands as one of the most widespread nuisance insects globally, establishing its presence in and around our homes. Often labelled as “filth flies,” these insects thrive in environments rich in decomposing organic matter, including deceased animals and faeces. After laying eggs, maggots emerge, consuming the decaying material before pupating and transforming into adult flies within a few days. Adult flies, with a lifespan of up to a month, may lay hundreds of eggs. The fly itself is not the bigger trouble because they don’t have teeth to bite. The problem is the pathogens they carry and transmit. House flies transfer pathogens through contact with their feet and body. Besides leaving contaminated footprints, flies deposit faeces and vomit on our food. As they lack teeth, flies expel enzyme-rich saliva to dissolve food, creating a mixture of digestive fluids and partially dissolved food, which they then ingest.
While encountering a fly on your food doesn’t necessarily mean disposal of food is required, extended contact and activities such as vomiting and defecating increase the likelihood of pathogen contamination. And no, the 5-second rule is absolute trash (at least in this case) as pathogens can still be transferred. But for the average healthy person, a single encounter is unlikely to trigger illness. However, flies roaming out of sight for an extended period, leaving behind contaminants, pose greater concerns. As time passes, the risk of pathogens proliferating on exposed food rises. To mitigate health risks, ensure food is covered during preparation, cooking, and serving outdoors, and promptly remove leftovers to discourage flies.
Does everybody have a pencil tattoo?
Do you also have a mark on your hand or any other part of your body that looks like a pencil mark but has been there for several years? I am one of them, and I distinctly remember when I got that mark but never understood why it still remains on my hand. It is something like this:
Credit- Twitter: @emmaafreitas
I finally understood what this meant. I got it when I was trying to open a packet of chips in school and stabbed it with a pencil with the packet in my left hand. I felt a sharp prick of the pencil on my hand but didn’t think much of it. It remained even after I washed my hands. It was there when I woke up the next day. I felt curious as to why it wouldn’t go, but then soon forgot. Eventually, it has become a part of my hand. When a person is stabbed by a pencil and a piece of the pencil lead (typically made of graphite) breaks off under the skin, it can indeed cause a permanent mark. The mark may appear as a coloured or blue-grey spot due to the nature of the graphite. Graphite is generally considered inert and non-toxic, so having a small amount of it under the skin is not usually harmful. The body’s natural healing process involves macrophages attacking the foreign particle under the skin and taking away the smaller particles. But the bigger ones get encapsulated by it, preventing any significant adverse effects. However, it’s essential to keep the wound clean to minimize the risk of infection. While the mark is usually not harmful, it’s advisable to seek medical attention if there are signs of infection, persistent discomfort, or if the pencil lead has caused a deep wound. In most cases, though, a small pencil lead deposit is more of a cosmetic concern than a medical one.
Hence, it is one tattoo that probably a lot of us share!
Teflon poisoning – myth or truth?
Let’s talk about Teflon, the stuff that keeps your dosa or pancakes from sticking to the pan or your eggs from sliding off the pan. So, Teflon is basically this super-slick material chemically called polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), and Teflon is just a company that uses it. Let’s stick with Teflon for now because it’s way easier to say. It’s not just for pans; this stuff is used in all sorts of things because it’s like the superhero of materials—doesn’t react with other chemicals and reduces friction. You’ve probably seen those dramatic headlines screaming, “Toss out your non-stick pans!” But if you actually read those articles, you’ll find they admit Teflon is pretty chill and doesn’t cause trouble unless you really push its buttons (like overheating it). It seems there’s a bit of a mix-up, where the scary headline doesn’t quite match the story’s real agenda. When it comes to making Teflon pans, it’s all about spraying a layer of this material onto cookware. And if you’re worried about bits of Teflon getting into your food from a scratched pan, don’t sweat it. These bits are too inert to react with anything in our bodies and just take a trip right through the digestive system. But, and there’s always a but, cranking up the heat too high (we’re talking over 260°C or 500°F) can make Teflon start to decompose, and that’s when it can release fumes. In a home kitchen, though, you’re unlikely to hit those extreme temperatures for your pans. Still, it’s good to be mindful, especially if you have birds or anyone with certain health conditions at home, as they might be more sensitive to these fumes and can actually contract respiratory problems. So, the bottom line? Teflon is not the villain it’s sometimes made out to be. Just use it wisely—keep the heat moderate, and take care of your pans by not scraping them with metal spatulas. This way, you can enjoy your non-stick cookware without worry.
Smelly armpits
Stinky armpits can be a source of embarrassment, but it’s a common issue many have faced. Often referred to as body odour (BO), there are measures you can take to reduce and avoid the smell, potentially lessening your discomfort. But the first step should be understanding the science behind it so that you can take targeted action. The human body has two main types of sweat glands: eccrine and apocrine. Eccrine glands are found all over the body and produce a watery sweat, mainly for cooling, while the apocrine glands secrete an organic compound-rich sweat that provides a fertile breeding ground for bacteria. This sweat contains proteins, lipids, and amino acids, which are odourless when secreted. The primary bacteria responsible for breaking down these compounds are from the Corynebacterium, Staphylococcus, Micrococcus, and Propionibacterium families. These bacteria thrive in warm, moist environments like the armpits and groin. The bacteria digest the proteins and fats in your sweat, producing an unpleasant smell as a byproduct:
1. 3-Methyl-2-hexenoic acid: This is a major component of body odour and is produced through the bacterial decomposition of lipids in sweat.
2. Isovaleric acid: Produced by the bacterial breakdown of leucine, an amino acid found in sweat, this compound has a cheesy odour.
3. Androstenone and Androstenol: These are steroid derivatives that are also present in apocrine sweat and can be metabolized by bacteria, contributing to the characteristic musky body odour.
Body odour typically becomes noticeable after puberty due to hormonal changes that increase the activity of apocrine sweat glands. Antiperspirants contain aluminium-based compounds that temporarily block sweat pores, reducing sweating. Deodorants, on the other hand, mask the odour but don’t reduce sweating. These products are acidic in nature, so they temporarily turn the surface of your skin acidic, preventing the formation of these bacteria. Regular bathing, wearing natural fibres, changing clothes frequently, and using antiperspirant or deodorant can help prevent smelly armpits. Maintaining good hygiene is crucial in managing body odour. Over-the-counter remedies can be effective for excessive sweating. However, if the condition is severe and unmanageable, it could indicate an underlying issue like hyperhidrosis, requiring medical consultation. Individuals suffering from hyperhidrosis experience abnormal sweating, particularly affecting their palms, soles, and underarms. If a physician suspects this condition, they can conduct diagnostic evaluations to verify it and offer appropriate treatment options.
How do pulse oximeters work and what do the numbers mean?
Do you know about those little devices that measure the level of oxygen (SpO2%) in your body by just clipping them on? They are called pulse oximeters and are very useful devices. Pulse oximeters are small, non-invasive medical devices that offer a convenient way to measure the oxygen saturation in your blood without the need for a blood sample. They work by clipping onto your finger and using light beams—specifically red and infrared light—to penetrate the skin. The principle behind their function lies in the absorption of light by haemoglobin in the blood. Oxyhemoglobin, which carries oxygen, absorbs more infrared light, whereas deoxyhemoglobin, which lacks oxygen, absorbs more red light. The device then measures the ratio of these absorptions to calculate the oxygen level in the blood. What makes pulse oximeters particularly appealing is their ease of use; they require no medical expertise and can be operated by simply pressing a power button. This simplicity, coupled with their affordability and availability in most drug stores, makes them accessible to the general public. These devices are compact enough to fit in a pocket, making them highly portable.
Beyond their basic functionality, pulse oximeters play a crucial role in health monitoring by allowing for the early detection of hypoxemia—a condition characterized by low oxygen levels in the blood that can lead to symptoms like cyanosis, where the skin turns blue. For individuals with conditions affecting their oxygen saturation, having a pulse oximeter on hand can be vital for monitoring health and responding promptly to any signs of distress.
How do you read a pulse oximeter? The most basic oximeters show one or two values. One is the SpO2% which is the oxygen saturation in your blood in percentage. The other number is your pulse, i.e. how many times your heart beats in one minute. When you have those numbers, the general guideline is that an SpO2% between 95%-100%, and a pulse rate between 60 to 100 are considered normal. However, these numbers depend on a number of other factors like age, fitness level, individual health conditions, and so on. Contact your healthcare provider if the numbers are out of range over a prolonged period to understand what may be the cause. However, any sudden change in SpO2% or pulse rate, even within what might be considered “normal” ranges, should be taken seriously if it’s accompanied by other symptoms or distress.
Expired medicines: Toxic, decayed, or just ineffective?
We all stock up on important over-the-counter medicines like paracetamol, cough syrups, ibuprofen, and so on to keep them handy in case of emergency. And in most cases, they just go to waste after they expire without having been used, which is a good thing for us healthwise. But we have all wondered at least once if it is okay to eat that paracetamol a few weeks or a few months after the date of expiry printed on the packet without having to go and buy a new one for just one use. You’re not alone; many people have this thought, including researchers. One of the first and major drug stability tests was done in the 1980s and ’90s by the FDA where they found that stockpiles of medication worth billions of dollars that were close to or past their expiration date were still good enough to be used up to three years past that date in SOME cases. Here we need to proceed with caution because this test was done on medication in the previous century and not the new ones. So, there is not much information about the stability and efficacy of newer drugs. That being said, there are certain guidelines about medicines of different forms. Some prepared antibiotic mixtures have an expiry of 1 to 2 weeks depending on the product because they don’t have sufficient protection against water, oxygen, and bacteria in the air. Eyedrops usually have an expiry date of about 4 weeks because our eyes can be sensitive to certain bacteria that might get into the eyedrops. Some medicines just tend to lose their efficacy over time and end up being ineffective. A major example of this is paracetamol. Studies on this drug show that they tend to lose more than 30% of their efficacy in 12-24 months beyond their expiry date. Some medicines actually decayed beyond their expiry date, eg. liquid antibiotics, insulin, certain Epipens (NOT ALL), etc. There are obviously certain rules of how a medicine should be stored to extend its shelf life as much as possible. Medicines that must be stored at lower temperatures should be kept in the refrigerator or deep freeze; read the box or bottle for the temperature at which they must be stored because if not stored at the right temperature, they are susceptible to microbial attack and turn toxic (rare but possible). Medications that must be stored at room temperature should be kept in a cool, dry, and dark place so that their interaction with light, water, heat, and oxygen is as minimal as possible to not change their chemical compositions. Tablets are the most stable form of medicine because of the efficiency of preserving their chemical nature, but the chemical itself in the medicine may degrade, change into something else, or lose its potency over time beyond the expiration date.
Bottom line: What should you do?
–>Store the medicines as instructed on the box.
–> Read the leaflet that comes with the medication because most of the information you need would be there, including information about their use beyond the expiration date. And also, learn how to dispose of expired medications responsibly.
–> It is not recommended to stock-pile medicines “just in case” if you can buy them whenever you need them.
–> Expiration dates are determined based on regulatory guidelines that ensure the safety and efficacy of medications up to that date. Beyond this date, the manufacturer cannot guarantee the drug’s potency or safety.
–> Most importantly, consult with healthcare professionals regarding the use of expired medications, especially for critical or life-saving drugs.
–> Finally, the stability of expired medications can vary widely based on their chemical composition, formulation, and storage conditions. So, always proceed with full information about the consequences of putting any medicine in your body so that you can take care of yourself in the required way.
If you are interested in the actual research, here (https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0731708518328887) is a well-structured scientific review of the tests conducted on medicines to determine their shelf lives.
Glycemic index and gut health
Ever wonder why some foods leave you feeling energized while others send you crashing? It all comes down to the glycemic index (GI)—a powerful tool to revolutionize your eating habits and boost your health. Understanding the glycemic index (GI) is a game-changer for anyone looking to enhance their dietary habits. In simple terms, the GI measures how quickly foods raise your blood sugar levels after you eat them. Mastering this can help you manage your energy more effectively, control your appetite, and even reduce your risk of chronic diseases like diabetes. Foods with a high GI can shake up your health, starting from the gut. When you indulge in these foods, your body responds with rapid spikes in blood sugar and insulin. This rollercoaster can lead to inflammation and a host of gut health issues, from weakened gut barriers to upset microbiome. On the flip side, low-GI foods take the slow road, digesting and absorbing at a pace that helps maintain a balanced glucose level in your blood. This supports a thriving gut environment and promotes overall gut health. Consider white bread—a high-GI staple in many diets. It is quick to boost blood sugar levels, which isn’t great for your gut. But a simple tweak like toasting it can actually lower its GI. This happens through the Maillard reaction, where the heat changes the starches and sugars, altering how your body processes them. Want to make even smarter changes? Pair that toast with protein (think eggs or cheese) or healthy fats (like a spread of avocado). This combination can help temper your body’s glycemic response, leading to a more gradual glucose release and less inflammation. Understanding how different food preparations and combinations can affect the glycemic index (GI) of foods can be quite enlightening and useful for managing blood sugar levels. Some tips:
–> White Rice generally has a high GI. However, the GI can be slightly reduced by cooking it with a bit more water and then cooling it in the fridge for a few hours before reheating. This process, similar to pasta, increases the resistant starch content.
–> The riper a banana is, the higher its GI because the starches break down into simpler sugars as they ripen. Less ripe bananas have a lower GI.
–> Eating fruits like bananas or watermelon with nuts can help lower the overall GI of the snack due to the fat content in nuts slowing down sugar absorption.
–> Idli and dosa, made from fermented rice and lentils, generally have a lower glycemic index and offer more nutritional benefits compared to pancakes, which are often made from refined flour and served with high-sugar toppings.
High-GI culprits often include processed grains, sugary cereals, and some baked goods. Meanwhile, champions of the low-GI world are usually whole grains, legumes, and a plethora of fruits and vegetables. Here are some practical ways to weave more low-GI foods into your life:
–> Opt for whole grains instead of refined ones.
–> Include legumes in your meals more often.
–> Combine high-GI foods with fiber, fats, and proteins to balance blood sugar.
The glycemic index isn’t just a number—it’s a pathway to better health. By integrating GI knowledge into your daily eating habits, you can dramatically improve your health outcomes. Experiment with different foods and notice how your body feels. Tailor your diet to what best suits your health needs and watch as your overall well-being transforms. Remember, embracing a low-GI diet means more than dodging specific foods—it’s about crafting a balanced, nutrient-rich eating plan that energizes and sustains you throughout the day. You may not have to avoid your favorite foods. Just give it a healthy spin with science!
How do orbits work in space?
Imagine you’re playing catch with a friend. When you throw the ball, it flies through the air in a curved path before your friend catches it. Now, think about what happens if you throw the ball really hard. It goes farther, right? But eventually, it will still come back down to the ground because of gravity. Gravity is a force that pulls objects toward each other. Earth has gravity, which is why when you throw a ball, it eventually comes back down. But if you were strong enough to throw the ball so hard that it went all the way around the Earth, it would keep going around and around without falling. This is kind of how orbits work! An orbit is the path an object takes as it moves around another object in space. For example, the Moon orbits the Earth, and the Earth orbits the Sun. The reason things can orbit is because of a balance between two things:
Gravity: The Sun’s gravity pulls the Earth towards it.
Speed: The Earth is moving very fast sideways.
The Earth’s fast sideways movement tries to shoot it out into space, but the Sun’s gravity pulls it back. These two forces balance out, causing the Earth to keep moving around the Sun in a circular or oval path. To better understand how orbits work, let’s imagine a thought experiment by Sir Isaac Newton called Newton’s Cannonball.
–> Imagine a very high mountain with a cannon on top.
–> If you fire the cannon, the cannonball will travel a certain distance before gravity pulls it down to the ground.
–> If you fire the cannonball with more speed, it will travel farther before hitting the ground.
–> Now, if you could fire the cannonball with enough speed, it would travel so far that it would keep missing the Earth as it falls. It would essentially be in orbit around the Earth. The cannonball is still falling due to gravity, but because it’s moving forward so fast, it keeps missing the ground.
The ISS orbits the Earth at an average altitude of about 400 kilometers. It travels at a speed of approximately 28,000 kilometers per hour. At this speed, it takes about 90 minutes to complete one orbit around the Earth.
Orbits can be of different kinds:
–> In a circular orbit, an object moves around the Earth (or another celestial body) at a constant distance. The speed of the object is just right to balance the gravitational pull, so it travels in a circular path. Example: Many communication satellites are in circular orbits around the Earth. They stay at a fixed altitude and move at a constant speed.
–> In an elliptical orbit, the path is an elongated circle, or an ellipse. The object moves faster when it’s closer to the body it’s orbiting and slower when it’s farther away. Example: The Moon orbits the Earth in an elliptical path. At some points in its orbit, it’s closer to the Earth (perigee), and at others, it’s farther away (apogee).
–> A special type of circular orbit is the geostationary orbit. In this orbit, a satellite moves at the same speed as the Earth’s rotation. This means it stays above the same point on the Earth’s surface all the time. Example: Weather satellites and some communication satellites are placed in geostationary orbits so they can continuously monitor the same area.
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